Meaning of Research
• Scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic.
• Scientific investigation
• Careful investigation or inquiry specially through search
for new facts in any branch of knowledge
• Systematized effort to gain new knowledge
• Movement from known to unknown
• Purpose being to discover answer to questions through the application of scientific procedures.
METHODS FOR RESEARCH OF FACTS:
• Arbitrary method:
- based on imagination
- opinion
- Blind belief, impression
• Scientific Method
- systematic , rational approach
- based on verifiable evidences
BASIS OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD:
• SM is a systematic step-by –step procedure following the logical process of reasoning.
• Basis of Scientific Method
- Reliance on empirical evidence. Collect evidence and ana.
- Use of relevant concepts. To deal with data we use conc’s
- Commitment to objectivity. No subjectivity
- Ethical neutrality. Science doesn’t impose, it states
- Generalization. No inclination to generalization on incomplete or unrelated data
-Verifiability. Should be verifiable anywhere anytime
- Logical reasoning process. Induction and deduction.
INDUCTION AND DEDUCTION:
• Induction. Studying individual cases and drawing generalizations . It is two step process:
- Observation
-generalization
Have control group and experimental groups
• Essential Conditions
- correct observation, record, accurate data collection
- observation must cover representative cases
- adequate cases
- inferences from observation only.
RESEARCH COMPRISES OF:
• Defining and redefining problems
• Formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions
• Collecting , organising, and evaluating data
• Making deductions and reaching conclusions
• Carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.
RESEARCH:
• Manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalising to extend, correct or verify knowledge whether that knowledge aids in construction of theory or in the practice of an art.
……………. D Slesinger and M Stephenson
• Pursuit of truth with the help of
- study
- observation
- comparison
- experiment
OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH:
• Research increases knowledge
• Explains mysteries of nature, brings to light information
• Establishes general laws and generalisations,
• Verifies and tests existing facts and theories
• Improves ability to handle situations
• Analyses interrelationships
• Finds solutions to problems
• Develops new tools , concepts and theories
• Aids planning
• To gain familiarity / gain insight with phenomenon
(exploratory of formulative research)
• To portray accurately the chara. Of an individual, situation, or a group
(descriptive research studies)
• To determine the frequency of occurrence of something or its association with something else
(diagnostic research)
• To test hypothesis of a casual relationship between variables
(Hypothesis –testing)
RESEARCH PROCESS:
1. Define Research Problem
2. Review Literature
- Review Concepts and Theories
- Review Previous Research Findings
3. Formulate Hypotheses
4. Design Research (including sample design)
5. Collect Data
6. Analyze data (test hypotheses if formulated)
7. Interpret
8. Report.
RESEARCH PROCESS:
• Consists of many closely related activities
• Activities overlap continuously
• Steps are not mutually exclusive, separate and distinct
• Do not follow each other in any specific order
• Researcher has to keep anticipating the requirement of subsequent steps.
FORMULATING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM:
• Types of research problems
-relate to states of nature
- relate to relationship between variables
• Reacher must decide the area of interest/sub matter
• Consider feasibility of a particular solution
• There are two steps in formulation of a problem
- understanding the problem thoroughly
- rephrasing the same in terms from analytical pt to view
• Discuss with fellow beings, may be given by a client
• Carry out literature review
- conceptual literature
- empirical literature (studies made earlier may lead to rephrasing the problem
- Remember phrasing problem is the most important step
• Statement of objectives is very imp as it determines which data is relevant/to be collected/explored.
• Choice of techniques will also depend on this
• A number of formulations are set up
• Each formulation becomes more specific than previous
• Each one phrased in more analytical & realistic terms.
Extensive Literature Survey:
• When Problem formulated- write down summary
• Synopsis is written
• Undertake extensive lit survey
- abstracting and indexing journals and publications
- Bibliographies
- conference proceedings
- govt reports
- books
· Earlier studies
Developing of Hypotheses:
• After lit survey – state working hypothesis/ hypotheses
• It is tentative assumption made in order to
- draw out and
- Test its logical or empirical consequences
• They provide the focal point fro research
• Affect the manner in which test must be conducted
• It has to be very specific
• Connected to problem
• since it is to be tested it is import
• They arise when problem is considered data is examined, experts are consulted, studies are examined
• It may not be needed in case of exploratory / formative researches.
Preparing the Research Design:
• Conceptual structure within which research would be conducted
• For efficient research and yielding max information
• Min expenditure of effort, time and money
• Research purpose could be
= exploration- would need flexi design considering different aspects of a problem,
=description- if accurate description is required , design to have min biases and max reliability of data
=diagnosis-
=experimentation
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN:
• Experimental hypo testing.
informal design :- . i.e. before and after without control. After only with control. Before and after with control
formal design :- i.e. completely randomized, randomized block design, Latin square design.
DETERMINING THE SAMPLE DESIGN:
• All items under consider. Are population or universe
• Complete enumeration of all is called census inquiry.
No element of chance . But not possible . Expensive.
census can not be done always.
• So a representative group is taken.
researcher must select a sample
• Can be probability or non probability samples
• Can be probability or non probability samples
• Probability Sampling – each ele has a known prob. of being included in the sample i.e. Simple random. Systematic, stratified cluster/area sampling , f
• Non-prob. Sampling. Do not allow you determine the probability. Convenience or deliberate sampling, judgement, quota . Done when developing a hypothesis
COLLECTION OF DATA:
• Generally data available is not adequate.
• Data is collected and with this researcher examines the truth contained in his hypothesis
• Ways to collect data
- by observation
- Through personal/telephone interviews
-Through mailed questionnaire
-through schedules.
Use of commonsense and experience.
EXECUTION OF THE PROJECT: -
• Must proceed in time on correct lines -> adequate and dependable data
• Collection of data to be done systematically
• Whether interviewers are doing job properly or not, check
• Processing of data. Computerized ?
• Data to be as per pre-determined standard of accuracy
• If some respondents do no cooperate, see how to get data.
ANALYSIS OF DATA:
• Establishment of categories
• Coding, editing, tabulation and drawing inferences
• Use of computers
• Calculate percentages, coefficients by formulae
• Analysis will include
- finding relationships or differences supporting or conflicting with original or new hypotheses are subjected to tests of significance
- this is to determine with what validity data can be said to indicate any conclusions
e.g. if we take two samples and compare the results statistically, we would find out if the differences are real one or just a result of normal fluctuations
If the difference happens to be real, inference is that two samples come from different universes
If the difference is due to chance, conclusion will be that the two samples belong to same universe.
- Ana of Variance can tell us if three varieties of seeds yield significantly different or results or not.
HYPOTHESIS TESTING:
• After analysis of data, one is in a position to test hypo
• We see if the facts support or oppose the hypo
• Test applied are
chi square test, t-test, F-test,
• If there is no hypo, generalizations est on the basis of data can be stated as hypo in subsequent researches.
GENERALIZATIONS AND INTERPRETATION:
• If a hypo is upheld many times it may lead to a generalisation i.e. build a theory.
• Real value of research is in its ability to are at a generalisation
• If there was no hypo in the beginning, researcher may explain the findings on the basis of a theory i.e. interpretation.
• Interpretation may start off new questions which may lead to another further researches.
PREPARATION OF THE REPORT OR THE THESIS:
• Preliminary pages. Title , date , ack, fwd, table of contents, list of tables, list of graphs and charts in the report
• Main text.
- Introduction. Statement of objectives, explanation of methodology, scope and limitations
-Summary of Findings. Findings and recommendations
• Main report. In logical sequence broken down in to iden sections
• Conclusions. Put down result of research. Final summing up.
Appendices and bibliography.
• Concise, objective style, simple language, no vague expressions i.e. may be, it appears etc.
• Calculated confidence limits must be mentioned, constraints must be expressed.
• Concise, objective style, simple language, no vague expressions i.e. may be, it appears etc.
Calculated confidence limits must be mentioned, constraints must be expressed.
Comments